The 2008 ESC guidelines cover for the first time both acute and chronic heart failure. Indeed, the guidelines have built upon the realisation that patients with acute heart failure often develop chronic problems and likewise, those with chronic heart failure, often suffer from acute illness.

The paper reviews diagnostic techniques, both pharmaceutical and device therapy, as well as non-pharmacological management. Unlike past guidelines, the 2008 document sees greater emphasis placed on the importance of implementing treatment recommendations and management of palliative care.

The document also summarises the major "gaps in evidence" in an attempt to focus future clinical research on important issues that have not been adequately addressed. As such, the paper addresses issues that cardiologists are aware of, but do not have evidence for.-European Society of Cardiology